| Notes |
- He married Adelaide of Italy, daughter of Rudolph II, Roi de Jurane Bourgogne and Berthia of Swabia. He married Eadgyth, daughter of Eadweard I, King of Wessex and Ælflæd, between 925 and 930.
Otto I von Sachsen, Holy Roman Emperor also went by the nick-name of Otto 'the Great'. He gained the title of Herzog von Sachsen. He succeeded to the title of Emperor Otto I of the Holy Roman Empire in 936. He gained the title of Otto I Deutscher Kaiser in 936. He was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962.
Otto I (November 23, 912 - May 7, 973), also known as Otto the Great, was the founder of the Holy Roman Empire, reigning from 936 until his death in 973. The oldest son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, Otto was "the first of the Germans to be called the emperor of Italy".
Otto inherited the Duchy of Saxony and the kingship of the Germans upon his father's death in 936. He continued his father's work to unify all German tribes into a single kingdom and greatly expanded the king's powers at the expense of the aristocracy. Through strategic marriages and personal appointments, Otto installed members of his own family to the kingdom's most important duchies. This reduced the various dukes, who had previously been co-equals with the king, into royal subjects under his authority. Otto transformed the Roman Catholic Church in Germany to strengthen the royal office and subjected its clergy to his personal control.
After putting down a brief civil war among the rebellious duchies, Otto defeated the Magyars in 955, thus ending the Hungarian invasions of Europe. The victory against the pagan Magyars earned Otto the reputation as the savior of Christendom and secured his hold over the kingdom. By 961, Otto had conquered the Kingdom of Italy and extended his kingdom's borders to the north, east, and south. In control of much of central and southern Europe, the patronage of Otto and his immediate successors caused a limited cultural renaissance of the arts and architecture. Following the example of Charlemagne's coronation as "Emperor of the Romans" in 800, Otto was crowned Emperor in 962 by Pope John XII in Rome.
Otto's latter years were marked by conflicts about the Papacy and struggles to stabilize his rule over Italy. Reigning from Rome, the Emperor sought to improve relations to the Byzantine Empire, that opposed his claim to Emperorship and his realm's further expansion to the south. To resolve this conflict the Byzantine princess Theophanu married his son, Otto II, in April, 972. Otto finally returned to Germany in August 972 and died of natural causes in 973, with Otto II succeeding him as Emperor.
Early life
Otto was born on November 23, 912, the oldest son of the Duke of Saxony Henry the Fowler and his second wife Matilda of Ringelheim, the daughter of the Saxon count Dietrich of Ringelheim (in Westphalia). Henry had previously married Hatheburg, also a daughter of a Saxon count, in 906 but divorced her in 909 after she had given birth to Henry's first son and Otto's half-brother Thankmar. Otto had four full siblings: Hedwig (born 910), Gerberga (born 913), Henry (born 919), and Bruno (born 925). Little else is known about his youth and education.
Background
On December 23, 918, Conrad I of Germany, the King of East Francia and Duke of Franconia, died. According to the Res gestae saxonicae by the Saxon chronicler Widukind of Corvey, Conrad on his deathbed persuaded his younger brother Duke Eberhard of Franconia, Conrad's presumptive heir, to offer the crown to Otto's father Henry. Although Conrad and Henry had been at odds with one another since 912, Conrad considered Henry to be the only German duke capable of holding the German kingdom together in the face of internal rivalries among the dukes and the continuous Hungarian raids. After hesitating several months, Eberhard and the other Frankish and Saxon nobles elected Henry as king at the Imperial Diet of Fritzlar, in May 919; for the first time a Saxon instead of a Frank reigned over the kingdom.
Burchard II, Duke of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new King, but Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria did not recognize Henry's position. According to the Annales Iuvavenses, Arnulf was elected king by the Bavarians in opposition to Henry. Arnulf's "reign" was short-lived. Henry defeated him in two campaigns in 921, finally besieged his residence at Ratisbon (Regensburg) and forced him into submission. Henry spared Arnulf's life on two conditions: Henry's sovereignty over Bavaria was confirmed and Arnulf renounced his claims to the throne.
Heir apparent
Otto gained first experience as a military commander when the German kingdom fought against Slavic tribes on its eastern border. While campaigning against the Slavs, in 929 Otto's illegitimate son William, the future Archbishop of Mainz, was born to a Slavic mother. With Henry's dominion over the entire kingdom secured by 929, his family was given the right of sole succession over the kingdom. Henry had the arrangement for his succession ratified by an Imperial Diet at Erfurt. After his death, his lands and wealth were to be divided between his four sons: Thankmar, Otto, Henry, and Bruno. Otto was designated by his father to receive the crown, confirming him as Henry's heir apparent. This represented a significant development as the German kingship was traditionally elected by the various dukes and because Henry gave up the principle of division, in which each member of the royal family was granted a piece of the kingdom to rule as his own. Henry's actions founded individual succession within Germany, thus ensuring the indivisibility of the monarchy.
While Henry consolidated power within Germany, he prepared for an alliance with Saxon England by finding a bride for Otto. Association with another royal house would give Henry additional legitimacy and strengthen the bonds between the two Saxon kingdoms. To seal the alliance, King Æthelstan of England sent to Henry his two half sisters Eadgyth and Ælfgifu, so he could choose the one which best pleased him. Henry selected Eadgyth as Otto's bride and the two were married in 929.
Reign as King
Coronation
Henry died of a cerebral stroke on July 2, 936, at his palace, the Kaiserpfalz in Memleben and was buried at Quedlinburg Abbey. At his death, all German tribes were united in a single realm; aged 23, Otto assumed his father's position as Duke of Saxony and King of Germany. His coronation was held on August 7, 936 in Charlemagne's former capital of Aachen, where he was anointed and crowned by Hildebert, the Archbishop of Mainz. Though he was a Saxon by birth, Otto appeared at the coronation in Frankish dress in an attempt to demonstrate his sovereignty over the Duchy of Lotharingia and his role as true successor to Charlemagne, whose last heirs in East Francia had died out in 911.
According to Widukind of Corvey, at his coronation banquet, Otto had the four other dukes of the kingdom, those of Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria and Lorraine, act as his personal attendants: Arnulf I of Bavaria as marshal (or stablemaster), Herman I, Duke of Swabia as cupbearer, Eberhard III of Franconia as steward (or seneschal), and Gilbert of Lorraine as Chamberlain.[c] By performing this traditional service, the dukes signaled cooperation with the new king, and clearly showed their submission to his reign.
Despite his peaceful transition, the royal family was not harmonious during his early reign. Otto's younger brother Henry also claimed the throne contrary to his father's wishes of 929. According to "The Lives of Queen Matilda" (ita Mathildis reginae antiquior), their mother, Matilda of Ringelheim]], had favored Henry as king: in contrast to Otto, Henry had been "born in the purple" during his father's reign and shared his name.
Otto also faced internal opposition from various local aristocrats. According to Widukind of Corvey, in 936, Otto appointed Hermann Billung as Margrave, granting him authority over a march north of the Elbe River between the Limes Saxoniae and Peene River. As military governor of the area, Hermann extracted tribute from the Polabian Slavs inhabiting the area and often fought against the West Slavic tribes of the Lutici, Obotrites, and Wagri. Hermann's appointment angered his brother, Count Wichmann the Elder. As the elder and wealthier of the two, Wichmann believed his claim to office was greater. Additionally, Wichmann was related by marriage to the dowager queen Matilda. In 937, Otto further offended the sensibilities of the nobility through the appointment of Gero to succeed his older brother, Siegfried, as Count and Margrave of a border region abutting the Wends on the lower Saale. His decision frustrated Thankmar, Otto's half-brother and Siegfried's cousin, who felt he held a greater right to the appointment.
Rebellion of the dukes
First Rebellion
The year 937 brought the death of Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria, succeeded by his son Eberhard. The new duke quickly came into conflict with Otto, as Eberhard opposed the Kings's sovereignty over Bavaria as part of the peace treaty between the former King Henry and Arnulf. Refusing to recognize Otto's supremacy, Eberhard rebelled against the king. In two campaigns in the spring and fall of 938, Otto defeated and exiled Eberhard from the kingdom and stripped him of his titles. In his place, Otto appointed Eberhard's uncle Berthold, a duke in the March of Carinthia, as the new Duke of Bavaria on the condition that Berthold recognize Otto as the sole authority to appoint bishops and to administer royal property within the Duchy.
At the same time, Otto had to settle a dispute with Duke Eberhard of Franconia, the brother of former King Conrad I of Germany. Eberhard besieged Helmern castle near Peckelsheim; the fortress was located within the Duchy of Franconia near the border of the Duchy of Saxony, but under control by a Saxon commander who refused to swear fealty to any non-Saxon. Otto called the feuding parties to his court at Magdeburg where Eberhard was ordered to pay a fine and his lieutenants were sentenced to carry dead dogs in public, a particularly dishonoring punishment.
Infuriated with Otto's actions, Eberhard joined Otto's half-brother Thankmar, Count Wichmann, and Archbishop Frederick of Mainz and rebelled against the king in 938. The three[clarification needed] besieged Warstein in the Arnsberg Forest and freed Otto's brother Henry from imprisonment there. Herman I, Duke of Swabia, one of Otto's closest advisors, warned him of the rebellion and the king moved quickly to put down the revolt. Wichmann was soon reconciled with Otto and joined the king's forces against his former compatriots.[d] Otto besieged Thankmar at Eresburg and had him murdered at the altar of the church of Saint Peter. Following their defeats, Eberhard and Frederick sought reconciliation with the king. Otto pardoned both men, after a brief exile in Hildesheim, and restored them to their former positions.
Second Rebellion
Following his brief reconciliation, Eberhard prepared a new rebellion against Otto. He promised to assist Otto's younger brother Henry in claiming the throne and recruited Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine to join his rebellion. Gilbert was married to Otto's sister, Gerberga of Saxony, but had sworn fealty to King Louis IV of France. Otto exiled Henry from Germany, who fled to King Louis' court. The West Frankish King, in hopes of regaining dominion over Lorraine once again, joined forces with Henry and Gilbert. In response, Otto allied with Louis' chief antagonist: the Count of Paris Hugh the Great, the husband of Otto's sister Hedwige of Saxony. Henry marched on and captured Merseburg and planned to join Gilbert in Lorraine, but Otto besieged them at Chevremont near Liege. Before he could defeat them, he was forced to abandon the siege and moved against Louis, who had marched on and captured Verdun. Otto subsequently drove Louis back to his capital at Laon.
While Otto won some initial victories, he was unable to capture the other conspirators and end the rebellion. Archbishop Frederick sought to mediate a peace between the combatants, but Otto rejected his proposal. Under Otto's direction, Duke Herman of Swabia led an army against the conspirators into Franconia and Lorraine. Otto recruited allies from the Duchy of Alsace, who crossed the Rhine River and surprised Eberhard and Gilbert at the Battle of Andernach on October 2, 939. Otto's forces gained an overwhelming victory: Eberhard was killed in battle and Gilbert drowned in the Rhine while attempting to escape. Left alone to face his brother, Henry submitted to Otto and the rebellion ended. With Eberhard dead, the Duchy of Franconia became Otto's direct possession. The same year, Otto made peace with Louis IV whereby Louis recognized his suzerainty over Lorraine. In return, Otto withdrew his army from France and arranged for his sister Gerberga of Saxony (the widow of Gilbert) to marry Louis IV. As a reward for Duke Herman's loyalty during the rebellion, Otto arranged for his son Liudolf to marry Herman's only daughter Ida.
In 940, Otto and Henry were reconciled through the efforts of their mother. Henry returned to Germany and Otto appointed him as the new Duke of Lorraine to succeed Gilbert. Henry hadn't dropped his ambitions for the German throne and initiated another conspiracy against his older brother. With the assistance of Archbishop Frederick of Mainz, Henry planned to have Otto assassinated on Easter in 941 at Quedlinburg Abbey. Otto discovered the plot and had the conspirators arrested and imprisoned at Ingelheim. The king later released and pardoned both men only after they publicly performed penance on Christmas that same year.
Consolidation of power
The decade between 941 and 951 is marked by Otto's exercise of undisputed domestic power. Through the subordination of the dukes to his authority, Otto asserted the power to make decisions without prior agreement of the dukes. He deliberately ignored the claims and ranks of the nobility, who wanted dynastic succession in the assignment of office, by freely appointing individuals of his choice to the kingdom's offices. Loyalty to Otto, not lineage, was the pathway towards advancement under his rule. His mother Matilda disapproved of this policy and was accused by Otto's royal advisors of undermining his authority. After Otto briefly exiled her to her Westphalian manors at Enger in 947, Matilda was brought back to court at the urging of his wife Eadgyth.
The nobility found it difficult to adapt to Otto as the kingdom had never before followed individual succession to the throne. Whereas tradition dictated that all the sons of the former king were to receive a portion of the kingdom, Henry's succession plan placed Otto at the head of a united kingdom at the expense of his brothers. Otto's authoritarian style was in stark contrast to that of his father. Henry had purposely waived Church anointment at coronation as a symbol of his election by his people and governing his kingdom on the basis of "friendship pacts" (amitica). Henry regarded the kingdom as a confederation of duchies and saw himself as first among equal. Instead of seeking to administer the kingdom through royal representatives, as Charlemagne had done, Henry allowed the dukes to maintain complete internal control of their holdings as long as his superior status was recognized. Otto, on the other hand, had accepted Church anointment and regarded his kingdom as a feudal monarchy with himself holding divine right to rule it, allowing him to reign without concern for the internal hierarchy of kingdom's noble families.
This new policy ensured Otto's position as undisputed master of the kingdom. Members of his family and other aristocrats who rebelled against Otto were forced to publicly confess their guilt and unconditionally surrender to him, hoping for a pardon from their king. For nobles and other high-ranking officials, Otto's punishments were typically mild and the punished were usually restored to a position of authority afterwards. A notable example of this course is the case of his brother: Henry rebelled twice and was pardoned twice after his surrenders. He was even appointed as Duke of Lorraine and later as Duke of Bavaria. Rebellious commoners were treated far more harshly, Otto usually had them executed.
Otto continued to reward loyal vassals for their service. Although appointments were still gained and held at his discretion, they were increasingly intertwined with dynastic politics. Where Henry relied upon the "friendship pacts", Otto relied upon family ties. Otto refused to accept uncrowned rulers as his equal. Under Otto, the integration of important vassals took place through marriage connections: King Louis IV of France had married Otto's sister Gerberga of Saxony in 939 and Otto's son Liudolf had married Ida, the daughter of Hermann I, Duke of Swabia in 947. The former dynastically tied the royal house of West Francia to that of East Francia and the latter secured his son's succession to the Duchy of Swabia as Hermann had no sons. Otto's plans came to fruition when, in 950, Liudolf became Duke of Swabia and, in 954, Otto's nephew Lothair of France became King of France.
In 944, Otto appointed Conrad the Red as Duke of Lorraine and brought him into his extended family through his marriage to Otto's daughter Liutgarde in 947. A Salian Frank by birth, Conrad was a nephew of former king Conrad I of Germany. Following the death of Otto's uncle Berthold, Duke of Bavaria in 947, Otto satisfied his brother Henry's ambition through his marriage to Judith of Bavaria, daughter of Arnulf, and appointed him as the new Duke of Bavaria in 948. This arrangement finally achieved peace between the brothers as Henry thereafter abandoned his claims to the throne. Through his familial ties to the dukes, Otto had strengthened the sovereignty of the crown and the overall cohesiveness of the kingdom.
On January 29, 946, Eadgyth died suddenly at the age of 35 and Otto buried his wife in the Cathedral of Magdeburg. The union had lasted seventeen years and produced two children; with Eadgyth's death, Otto began to make arrangements for his own succession. Like his father before him, Otto intended to transfer sole rule of the kingdom to his son Liudolf upon his death. Unlike his succession, Liudolf's sole right to the throne would not have been militarily enforced. Otto called together all the dukes of the kingdom and had them swear an oath of allegiance to Liudolf, thereby promising to recognize his sole claim to the throne as Otto's heir apparent.
Foreign relations
France
From the beginning of his reign, relations between the German king and the Carolingian king of West Francia were strained by their conflicting interests. Otto viewed himself as the true heir to Charlemagne and had himself crowned at the Aachen Cathedral, within the Duchy of Lorraine. The West Frankish Kings had lost considerable royal power after internal struggles with their aristocracy, but still held a formal claim of authority over this duchy. By holding his coronation at Aachen, Otto was directly challenging their position. In 938 King Louis IV of France attempted a military invasion but was defeated by Otto's army. The German king was supported by Louis IV's chief domestic rival, Hugh the Great, who had previously married Otto's sister Hedwig of Saxony in 936. Louis IV's second attempt to reign over Lorraine in 940 was based on his asserted claim to be the rightful Duke of Lorraine due to his marriage to Gerberga of Saxony, Otto's sister and the widow of the fallen Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine. Otto did not recognize Louis IV's claim and appointed his brother Henry as duke. Lorraine remained a part of Otto's kingdom as traditional connection to Charlemagne's former realm.
Despite their rivalry, Louis IV and Hugh were now both tied to Otto's family through marriage bonds. Otto intervened for peace in 942 and announced a formal reconciliation between the two: Hugh was to perform an act of submission to Louis IV, and in return Louis IV was to waive any claims to Lorraine. After a short period of peace, the West Frankish kingdom fell into another crisis in 946. Normans captured Louis IV and handed him over to Hugh, who released the king only on condition to surrender the fortress of Laon. At the urging of his sister Gerberga, Otto invaded France on behalf of Louis IV, but his armies were not strong enough to take the key cities of Laon, Reims, and Paris. After a three month siege, Otto finally lifted the siege without defeating Hugh, but managed to depose Hugh of Vermandois from his position as Archbishop of Reims, restoring Artald of Reims to his former office.
To settle the issue of control over the Archdiocese of Reims, Otto called for a synod at Ingelheim in 948. The synod was attended by 34 bishops, including all of the archbishops of Germany. In September 948, the synod confirmed Otto's appointment of Artald as Archbishop of Reims and Hugh was excommunicated until he made peace with Louis IV. It was not until Easter 951, that the powerful vassal restored Laon to Louis IV, and Hugh did not fully reconcile with his king until 953. By calling for the synod to meet in Germany, Otto demonstrated his supremacy over the affairs of East Francia and his dominion over the German Church, further strengthening his claim as Charlemagne's true successor.
Burgundy
Otto continued the peaceful relationship between Germany and the Kingdom of Burgundy, initiated by his father. King Rudolf II of Burgundy had previously married Bertha of Swabia, the daughter of one of Henry's chief advisors, in 922. Burgundy was originally a part of Middle Francia, the central portion of Charlemagne's empire prior to its division under the Treaty of Verdun in 843. On July 11, 937, Rudolf II died and Hugh of Provence, the King of Italy and Rudolf II's chief domestic opponent, claimed the Burgundian throne. Otto intervened in the succession and with his support Rudolf II's son, Conrad of Burgundy, was able to secure the throne. Burgundy had become an integral, but formally independent, part of Otto's sphere of influence and remained at peace with Germany during his reign.
Bohemia
Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, assumed the Bohemian throne in 935. The next year, following Otto's father King Henry the Fowler's death, Boleslaus stopped paying tribute to Germany, in violation of the peace treaty Henry had established with Boleslaus' brother Saint Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia. After an initial invasion of Bohemia, the war deteriorated to a series of mostly border raids and was not concluded until 950, when Boleslaus signed a peace treaty with Otto. Despite being undefeated, he promised to resume the payment of the tribute to Otto and to recognize him as his overlord. The Duchy of Bohemia was then incorporated into the German kingdom.
Byzantine Empire
Otto developed close relations with the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, who reigned over the Byzantine Empire from 905 until his death in 959. East and West sent multiple ambassadors to one another during this time. In particular, German Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg records that in 945 and again in 949, "twice the Greek [Byzantine] envoys brought gifts to our king [Otto] from their emperor". It was during this time that Otto sought to link himself to the Eastern Empire through marriage negotiations.
Slavic Wars
Eastern Slavic Wars
As Otto was finalizing his actions to suppress his brother’s rebellion, the Slavs on the Elbe River revolted against German rule. Having been subdued by Otto’s father in 928, the Slavs saw Henry’s rebellion as an opportunity to regain their independence. Otto’s lieutenant in east Saxony, Count Gero, was performing exceptionally well. The Count of Thuringia since 937, Gero had successfully repulsed many Slavic incursions. As reward for his military successes, in 939 Otto promoted Gero to the rank of Margrave and granted him command over the entire eastern border theater, named the March of Gero in his honor, making Gero the most powerful Margrave in Otto’s kingdom.
With his new high command, Otto charged Gero with the subjugation of the pagan Polabian Slavs and their conversion to Catholicism. Under the guise of celebrating his promotion, Gero invited many Slavic chieftains to a banquet. When the chieftains arrived, Gero's soldiers attacked and massacred his unsuspecting guests. One chieftain managed to escape and informed the other Slavs of Gero’s treachery.[10] The Slavs demanded revenge and marched against Gero with an enormous army. Gero’s military resources proved insufficient to stop the increased Slavic assault. When Otto heard news of the invasion, he made peace with his rebellious brother Henry and hurried from Lorraine to the eastern front. The king arrived in Saxony and had some initial success, giving Gero an opportunity to regroup his forces. But Henry soon formed a new alliance in rebellion against Otto's rule and the king was forced to return to the west, leaving Gero to face the Slavs alone.
In 941, Gero initiated another plot to subdue the Slavs. He recruited a captive Slav named Tugumir, a Hevelli chieftain, to his cause. Gero promised to support him in claiming the Hevellian throne, if Tugumir would later recognize Otto as his overlord. Tugumir agreed and returned to the Slavs. Due to Gero’s previous massacre, few Slavic chieftains had remained, causing the Slavs to quickly proclaim Tugumir as prince. Upon assuming the throne, Tugumir murdered his chief rival and proclaimed his loyalty to Otto, incorporating his territory into the German kingdom. Otto granted Tugumir the title of Duke and allowed Tugumir to rule his people, subject to Otto’s suzerainty, in the same manner as the German dukes. After Gero's and Tugumir’s coup, the Slavic federation broke apart. In control of the key Hevelli stronghold of Brandenburg, Gero was able to successfully attack the divided Slavic tribes. The submission of the West Slavs allowed the Germans to extend their control into Eastern Europe, both through military colonization and the establishment of churches.
Northern Slavic Wars
As the Slavs in east Saxony rebelled against German rule, so too did the Slavs in north Saxony. Otto’s lieutenant there, Margrave Hermann Billung of the Billung March, had initial success in driving the Slavs back across the Elbe River but his position remained difficult. The northern Wend Slavs were soon joined by the Danes from Jutland under King Gorm the Old. The Danes, like the Slavs, had been subdued by Otto’s father Henry years before. The new Slavic-Danish alliance, under the command of Gorm’s son Harold Bluetooth, pushed deep into Hermann’s territory, ultimately capturing the margrave as a prisoner of war in 947.
Harold’s joint Slavic-Danish army was left unchallenged in northern Saxony for three years until 950 when Otto led an army north to counter their advance. Otto’s powerful army defeated Harold and forced him back into Jutland. Otto pursued Harold and devastated Denmark with a policy of scorched earth. His people starving, Harold sued for peace and agreed to Otto's conditions: Harold had to renounce his German conquests, release Hermann, recognize Otto as his overlord, and convert to Christianity. Without the Danes to aid them, the Wend Slavs’ confederation in north Saxony quickly fell apart. Tribe after tribe submitted to Otto’s rule. Otto required the conquered Slavs to pay heavy tribute, support the building of churches, and submit to military conscription.
Expansion into Italy
Disputed Italian Throne
In 888, with the death of Emperor Charles the Fat, the empire of Charlemagne was permanently divided into four kingdoms: East Francia, West Francia, Kingdom of Burgundy, and the Kingdom of Italy with each of the four realms being ruled by their own kings. Though the Pope in Rome continued to appoint the kings of Italy as "Emperor" to rule Charlemagne's empire, these "Italian Emperors" never exercised any authority north of the Alps. With the assassination of Emperor Berengar I of Italy in 924, the last nominal heir to Charlemagne was dead and the title "Emperor" was left unclaimed.
Berengar's death created a power vacuum in Italy. King Rudolf II of Upper Burgundy, and Hugh, Count of Provence and effective ruler of Lower Burgundy, held competing claims to the throne of Italy. By 926, Hugh forced Rudolf to flee Italy, establishing de facto control over the Italian peninsula. Hugh later induced the Italian nobility to recognise his son Lothair II of Italy as their next king and crowned him in April 931. Hugh and Rudolf II eventually concluded a peace treaty in 933, with Rudolf II renouncing his claims to the Italian throne and Hugh granting control over Lower Burgundy to Rudolf II, which he combined with Upper Burgundy into a new Kingdom of Burgundy. To seal the peace, Rudolf II betrothed his infant daughter Adelaide to Hugh's son Lothair.
In 940, Margrave of Ivrea Berengar II, the grandson of former King Berengar I, led a revolt of Italian nobles against his uncle Hugh. Forewarned by Lothair, Hugh exiled Berengar II from Italy and Berengar II fled to the protection of Otto's court in 941. In 945, Berengar II returned from exile in Germany and was welcomed by the Italian nobility. With the aid of hired mercenaries, Berengar II defeated Hugh in battle and forced him into permanent retirement in Provence. As part of a peace deal, Hugh was allowed to remain nominal king of Italy with Berengar II as the decisive power behind the throne. Lothair finally married the sixteen-year-old Adelaide, on December 16, 947.[e] When Hugh died in April 10, 948, his son Lothair succeeded him as nominal king, Berengar II continued to hold all real power.
Lothair's brief "reign" came to an end with his death on November 22, 950, presumably poisoned by Berengar, leaving Adelaide widowed before her twentieth birthday. Berengar II then crowned himself king with his son Adalbert of Italy as his co-ruler and heir apparent. Failing to receive widespread support for his right to the crown, Berengar II attempted to legitimize his reign and tried to force Adelaide, the respective daughter, daughter-in-law, and widow of the last three Italian kings, into marriage with Adalbert. Adelaide fiercely refused and was imprisoned by Berengar II at Garda Lake. With the help of Count Adalbert Atto of Canossa, she managed to escape. Besieged by Berengar II in Canossa, Adelaide sent an emissary across the Alps seeking Otto’s protection and marriage. Otto, widowed since 946, knew a marriage to Adelaide would allow him to fulfill his ambition of ruling Italy and, ultimately, claiming the imperial crown as Charlemagne’s true heir. Knowing of Adelaide’s great beauty and immense wealth, the thirty-eight year old Otto accepted nineteen year old queen's marriage proposal and prepared for an expedition into Italy.
First Italian Expedition
In the early summer of 951, before his father marched across the Alps, Otto's son Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, invaded Lombardy in northern Italy. From his stronghold in Swabia located just north of the Alps, Liudolf was in closer proximity to the Italian border than his father in Saxony. While the exact reason for Liudolf's actions are unclear, dynastic concerns and family ties to Adelaide may have been a factor. Adelaide's mother, Bertha of Swabia, was a daughter of Regelinda, the mother of Liudolf's wife Ida, from her first marriage to Burchard II, Duke of Swabia. Liudolf, therefore, may have intervened in the Italian campaign at the request of Adelaide's relatives. Additionally, Liudolf, 19 years old himself, did not view the idea of a young step-mother as in his best interests. Though Otto had named him as his successor, Liudolf feared any potential step-brother may usurp his claim to the German throne.
The purpose of Liudolf's Italian campaign was to overthrow Berengar II and therefore rend Otto's own expedition into Italy, and thus his marriage to Adelaide, unnecessary. While Liudolf was preparing his expedition, the Bavarian Duke Henry, Otto's brother and Liudolf's uncle, conspired against him; Swabia and Bavaria shared a long common border and the two dukes were involved in a border dispute. Henry influenced the Italian aristocrats not to join Liudolf's campaign. When Liudolf arrived in Lombardy, he found no support and was unable to sustain his troops. His army was near destruction until Otto's own army crossed the Alps. The King reluctantly received Liudolf's forces into his command, angry at his son for his inconsiderate and independent actions.
Otto and Liudolf arrived in northern Italy in September 951 without opposition from Berengar II. As they descended into the Po River valley, the Italian nobles and clergy withdrew their support for Berengar and provided aid to Otto and his advancing army. Recognizing his weakened position, Berengar II fled from his capital in Pavia. When Otto arrived at Pavia on September 23, 951, the city willingly opened its gate to the German king. In accordance with Lombard tradition, Otto was crowned with the Iron Crown of the Lombards on October 10. Like Charlemagne before him, Otto was now concurrent King of Germany and King of Italy. Otto then sent word to his brother Henry in Bavaria to escort his bride from Canossa to Pavia, where the two promptly married.
Soon after his father's marriage, Liudolf left Italy and returned to Swabia. Archbishop Frederick of Mainz, the Primate of Germany and Otto's long-time domestic rival, also returned to Germany alongside Liudolf. Despite Otto's plans to claim the imperial title, trouble arose in northern Germany, forcing Otto to return with the majority of his army back across the Alps in 952. Otto did leave a small portion of his army behind in Italy and appointed his son-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, as his regent and tasked him with subduing Berengar II.
Aftermath
The Italian expedition had greatly worsened the relation between Otto and his son Liudolf, Duke of Swabia. The designated successor viewed his father's marriage to Adelaide as potential threat to his role and any male child born from this union as potential usurper of his position as heir apparent. Liudolf also distrusted the growing influence of his uncle, the former rebel Henry I, Duke of Bavaria. The two men quarreled over who should hold the second highest position within the kingdom; the king’s brother or the king’s son.
In a weak military position with only few troops, Otto's regent in Italy tried for a diplomatic solution and opened peace negotiations with Berengar II. Conrad recognized that a military confrontation would impose great costs upon Germany, both in manpower and in treasure. At a time when the kingdom was facing invasions from the north by the Danes and from the east by the Slavs and Hungarians, all available resources were required north of the Alps. Conrad believed a client state relationship with Italy would be in Germany’s best interest. He offered a peace treaty, in which Berengar II would remain King of Italy on the condition that he recognized Otto as his overlord. Berengar II agreed and the pair traveled north to meet with Otto to seal the agreement.
Conrad’s treaty was met with disdain from Adelaide and Henry. Though Adelaide was Burgundian by birth, she was raised as an Italian. Her father Rudolf II of Burgundy was briefly king of Italy prior to being deposed and she herself had briefly been queen of Italy until her husband Lothair II of Italy’s death. Berengar II imprisoned her, when she refused to marry his son Adalbert of Italy. Henry had other reasons to disapprove the peace treaty. As Duke of Bavaria, he controlled territory on the northern side of the German-Italian border. Henry had hope, that with Berengar II being deposed, his own fiefdom would be greatly expanded by incorporating territory south of the Alps. Conrad and Henry were already not on good terms, and the proposed treaty drove the two dukes further apart. Adelaide and Henry conspired together to persuade Otto to reject Conrad’s treaty.
Conrad and Berengar II arrived at Magdeburg to meet Otto, but Adelaide had them wait three days before an audience was granted. This was a humiliating offense for the man Otto had named his regent. Though Adelaide and Henry urged the treaty's immediate rejection, Otto referred the issue to an Imperial Diet for further debate. Appearing before the Diet in August 952 in Augsburg, Berengar II and his son Adalbert were forced to swear fealty to Otto as his vassals. In return, Otto granted Berengar II Italy as his fief and restored the title “King of Italy†to him. The Italian king had to pay an enormous annual tribute and was required to cede the Duchy of Friuli south of the Alps. Otto reorganized this area as March of Verona and put it under Henry's control as reward for his loyalty. The Duchy of Bavaria therefore grew to the most powerful domain in Germany.
Otto and the German Church
A medieval king investing a bishop with the symbols of office. Otto centralized his control over Germany through the investiture of bishops and abbots, making the clergy-class his personal vassal.
Beginning in the 950s, Otto changed his internal policy and started to use the Catholic Church as a tool of his dominance. He increasingly associated himself with the Church and his divine right to rule the kingdom, viewing himself as the protector of the Church. As a key element of this change in domestic structures, Otto sought to strengthen ecclesiastical authorities, chiefly bishops and abbots, at the expense of the secular nobility who threatened his own power. Otto controlled the various bishops and abbots by investing them with the symbols of their offices, both spiritual and secular, so the clerics were appointed as his vassals through a commendation ceremony. Historian Norman Cantor concludes: "Under these conditions clerical election became a mere formality in the Ottonian empire, and the king filled up the ranks of the episcopate with his own relatives and with his loyal chancery clerks, who were also appointed to head the great monasteries".
Otto’s prototype for this blended royal-ecclesiastical service was his own brother Bruno the Great. Otto had appointed Bruno as his Chancellor in 940, as Archbishop of Cologne in 953, and as Duke of Lorraine in 953. In control of the westernmost German lands, Bruno was also Otto’s ambassador to West Francia. Holding these positions simultaneously made Bruno the second most powerful man in Germany behind Otto. Other important religious officials within Otto’s government include Archbishop William of Mainz (Otto’s illegitimate son), Archbishop Adalag of Bremen, and Hadamar, the Abbot of Fulda.
Otto endowed the bishoprics and abbeys of his kingdom numerous gifts, including not only land but also royal prerogatives such as the power to levy taxes and to maintain an army. Over these Church lands secular authorities had neither the power of taxation nor legal jurisdiction. This raised the Church above the various dukes and committed its clerics to serve as the king's personal vassals.[f] In order to support the Church, Otto made tithing mandatory for all inhabitants of Germany.
Otto granted the various bishops and abbots of the kingdom the rank of count as well as the legal rights of counts within their territory. Because Otto personally appointed all bishops and abbots, these reforms strengthened his central authority, and the upper ranks of the German Church functioned in some respect as an arm of the royal bureaucracy. Otto also established a policy of appointing his personal court chaplains to the various bishop positions throughout the kingdom. While attached to the royal court, the chaplains would perform the work of the government through services to the royal chancellery. After years at court, Otto would reward their service by promotion to a diocese.
Liudolf’s Civil War
Rebellion against Otto
With the humiliating failure of his Italian campaign and Otto's marriage of Adelaide, Liudolf became estranged from his father and planned a rebellion. On Christmas Day 951, Liudolf held a grand feast at Saalfeld which was attended by many important figures from across the kingdom, most notably the Primate of Germany, Otto’s chief domestic rival Archbishop Frederick of Mainz. Contemporaries recalled how Otto’s brother Henry held a similar feast ten years prior in 941, before he himself launched an armed rebellion against the King.
Liudolf was able to recruit his brother-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, to his rebellion. Otto’s forcing of Berengar II to cede control of Italian territory humiliated Conrad. As Otto’s regent in Italy, Conrad fully believed Otto would confirm the entire agreement he had conducted. Instead of the voluntary alliance, Conrad had promised, Berengar II was made Otto’s subject and his kingdom reduced. Conrad felt betrayed and insulted over Otto’s handling of the peace treaty, especially with the additional empowerment of Henry. Conrad, as did Liudolf, viewed Otto as being controlled by his foreign born wife and his power-hungry brother and together resolved to rescue the kingdom from their domination.
In winter 952, Adelaide gave birth to a son, whom she named Henry after her brother-in-law and the child’s grandfather, Henry the Fowler. Rumors spread that Otto had been persuaded by his wife and brother to propose this child as his heir instead of Liudolf. For many German nobles, this rumor represented Otto’s final transforming from a policy focused on Germany to an Italian-centered one. The idea that Otto would ask them to revoke the succession rights of Liudolf prompted many nobles into open rebellion. Instead of Otto as their target, Liudolf and Conrad first led the nobles against Henry in Bavaria, in spring 953. Henry, who was appointed by Otto as duke in 947, was unpopular with the Bavarians due to his Saxon heritage and so his vassals quickly rebelled against him.
Word of the rebellion reached Otto at Ingelheim. To secure his position he traveled to his stronghold at Mainz. The city was also the seat of Archbishop Frederick of Mainz, who acted as the spokesman for the rebels and offered himself as a mediator between Otto and the rebels, who quickly arrived in Mainz. Recorded details of the meeting or the negotiated treaty do not exist, but Otto soon left Mainz with a peace treaty favorable to the conspirators, most likely confirming Liudolf as heir apparent and approving Conrad’s original agreement with Berengar II, making the treaty contrary to the desires of Adelaide and Henry.
When Otto returned to Saxony, Adelaide and Henry persuaded the king to void the treaty. Convening the Imperial Diet at Fritzlar, Otto declared Liudolf and Conrad as outlaws in absentia. The King also reasserted his desires for dominion over Italy and to claim the imperial title. He sent emissaries to the Duchy of Lorraine and stirred the local nobles against Conrad’s rule. The duke was a Salian Frank by birth and unpopular with the people of Lorraine, thus they pledged their support to Otto.
Otto’s actions at the Diet prompted the people of the Duchy of Swabia and the Duchy of Franconia into civil war against their king. After initial defeats by Otto, Liudolf and Conrad fell back to their headquarters in Mainz. In July 953, Otto and his army laid siege to the city, supported by Henry’s army from Bavaria. After two months of siege the city had not fallen and rebellions against Otto’s rule grew stronger in southern Germany. Faced with these challenges, Otto opened peace negotiations with Liudolf and Conrad. Bruno the Great, Otto’s youngest brother and royal chancellor since 940, accompanied his older brothers and oversaw the arrangements for the negotiations. As the newly appointed Archbishop of Cologne, Bruno was eager to end the civil war in Lorraine, which was in his ecclesiastical territory. The rebels demanded ratification of the treaty they had previously agreed to with Otto, but Henry’s actions[vague] during the meeting caused the negotiations to break down. Conrad and Liudolf left the meeting to continue the civil war. Angered by their actions, Otto stripped both men of their duchies of Swabia and Lorraine, respectively. Otto then appointed his brother Bruno, the royal chancellor and archbishop of Cologne, as the new Duke of Lorraine. Never before had an ecclesiastical figure occupied a dukedom.
While he was on campaign with Otto, Henry had appointed the Bavarian Count Palatine, Arnulf II, to govern the duchy in his absence. Arnulf II was a son of Arnulf the Bad, whom Henry had previously displaced as duke, and sought revenge: he deserted Henry and joined the rebellion against Otto. Lifting the siege of Mainz, Otto and Henry marched south to regain control over Bavaria. Without support of the local nobles their plan failed and they were forced to retreat to Saxony.[20] The duchies of Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia were in open civil war against the King and even in his native Duchy of Saxony revolts began to spread. By the end of 953, the civil war was threatening to depose Otto and permanently end his claims to be Charlemagne’s successor.
End of the Rebellion
In early 954, Margrave Hermann Billung, Otto’s long-time loyal vassal in Saxony, was facing increased Slavic movements in the east. Using the civil war as a cover, the Slavs raided deeper and deeper into the adjacent border areas. Meanwhile, the Hungarians started extensive raids into Southern Germany. Though Liudolf and Conrad prepared defenses against the invasions, the Hungarians devastated Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia.
Otto’s brother Henry soon spread rumors that Conrad and Liudolf had invited the Hungarians into Germany. Public opinion quickly turned against the rebels in these duchies. With this change in opinion and the death of his wife Liutgarde, Otto’s only daughter, Conrad began peace negotiations with Otto, which were eventually joined by Liudolf and Archbishop Frederick. A truce was declared, and Otto called a meeting of the Imperial Diet on June 15, 954, at Langenzenn. Before the assembly convened, Conrad and Frederick were reconciled with Otto. At the Diet tensions flared up again, when Henry accused his nephew Liudolf of conspiring with the Hungarians. Though Conrad and Frederick implored the enraged Liudolf to seek peace, Liudolf left the meeting determined to continue the civil war.
Liudolf, with his lieutenant Arnulf II (the effective ruler of Bavaria), took his army south towards Regensburg in Bavaria, followed quickly by Otto. The armies met at Nurnberg and engaged in a deadly, though not decisive, battle. Liudolf retreated to Regensburg, and was there besieged by Otto. Though Otto’s army was unable to break through the city’s walls, after two months of siege, starvation set in within the city. Liudolf then sent a message to Otto seeking to open peace negotiations and the siege ended. Otto demanded unconditional surrender, which Liudolf refused. Fighting continued, eventually claiming the life of Arnulf II. With his lieutenant dead, Liudolf fled from Bavaria for his domain of Swabia, quickly followed by Otto. Previously stripped of his ducal title, Liudolf’s allies within Swabia had been persecuted by Otto’s followers. The two armies met near Illertissen near the Swabian-Bavarian border. After a costly battle, Liudolf agreed to end hostilities against Otto. A truce was declared between father and son until an Imperial Diet would be assembled to ratify the peace. Bruno arranged for Otto and Liudolf to meet to conclude peace terms. Otto forgave his son of all transgressions and Liudolf agreed to accept any punishment his father felt appropriate.
Soon after the peace agreement between Otto and Liudolf, the aging and sick Archbishop Frederick died in October 954. With the surrender of Liudolf, the rebellion had been put down throughout Germany except in Bavaria. Otto convened the Imperial Diet in December 954 at Arnstadt. Before the assembled nobles of the kingdom, Liudolf and Conrad declared their fealty to Otto and restored control over all territories their armies still occupied. Through Otto did not restore their former ducal title to them, he did allow them to retain their private estates. The Diet ratified Otto’s actions:
Liudolf was promised regency over Italy and command of an army to depose Berengar II
Conrad was promised military command against the Hungarians
Burchard III, son of former Swabian Duke Burchard II, was appointed Duke of Swabia (Liudolf's former duchy)
Bruno remained as new Duke of Lorraine (Conrad's former duchy)
Henry was confirmed as Duke of Bavaria
Otto's oldest son William, an illegitimate child from a Slavic mother, was appointed Archbishop of Mainz and Primate of Germany
Otto retained the Duchies of Saxony and Franconia as his personal domains.
Otto’s actions in December 954 finally brought an end to the two-year long civil war. Liudolf’s rebellion, though temporarily weakening, ultimately strengthened Otto’s position as absolute ruler of Germany.
Hungarian Invasions
The Hungarians invaded Otto’s domain, part of the larger Hungarian invasions of Europe, and ravaged Southern Germany during Liudolf’s civil war. Though Otto had installed the Margraves Hermann Billung and Gero on his kingdom’s northern and northeastern borders, the Principality of Hungary to the southeast was a permanent threat to German security. The Hungarians knew of the kingdom’s civil war and its internal weaknesses, which gave them an opportunity to invade the Duchy of Bavaria in spring 954. Though Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, and Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, had successfully prevented the Hungarians from invading their own territories in the west, the invaders managed to reach the Rhine River, sacking much of Bavaria and Franconia in the process.
On Palm Sunday, 954, Liudolf held a great feast at Worms and invited the Hungarian chieftains to join him. There, he presented the invaders with gifts of gold and silver. These actions proved to be the undoing of Liudolf’s rebellion. Rumor quickly spread that the rebels had invited the Hungarians into Germany in hopes of using them against Otto, causing popular support for the rebellion to quickly dry up. Support lost, the rebels called a truce with Otto. Conrad and Archbishop Frederick of Mainz, two of Liudolf’s primary conspirators, made peace with Otto. Liudolf continued the civil war, but within two months he too submitted to his father’s rule. By December 954, the civil war had ended and domestic peace returned to Germany.
The Hungarians, encouraged by their successful raids, started another invasion into Germany in spring 955. Otto’s army, now unhindered by civil war, was able to defeat the invasion and the Hungarians sent an ambassador seeking peace with Otto. The ambassador proved to be a decoy: Otto's brother Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, sent word to Otto that the Hungarians had crossed into his territory from the southeast. The main Hungarian army had camped along the Lech River and besieged Augsburg. While the city was defended by the Bishop Ulrich of Augsburg, Otto assembled his army and marched south to face the Hungarians.
Otto and his army faced the Hungarian force on August 10, 955, at the Battle of Lechfeld. Under Otto’s command was his vassal Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, and Burchard III, Duke of Swabia, who had married the daughter of Otto’s brother Henry. The pair was soon joined by Otto’s son-in-law Conrad. Though outnumbered nearly two to one, Otto was determined to push the Hungarians back. According to Widukind of Corvey, Otto "pitched his camp in the territory of the city of Augsburg and joined there the forces of Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, who was himself lying mortally ill nearby, and by Duke Conrad with a large following of Franconian knights. Conrad's unexpected arrival encouraged the warriors so much that they wished to attack the enemy immediately." Otto carried the Holy Lance, which he inherited from his father, into battle with him.
The Hungarians crossed the river and immediately attacked the Bohemians under Boleslaus, then the Swabian under Burchard, but retreated after a short fight. As Otto received word of the attack, he ordered Conrad to recover the baggage train. After his successful mission Conrad returned to the main forces and the King launched an immediate attack against the Hungarians. Despite a volley of arrows, Otto's army smashed into the Hungarian lines and was able to fight them in hand-to-hand combat, giving the traditionally nomadic warriors no room to use their favorite shoot-and-run tactics. The Hungarians feigned a retreat in an attempt to lure Otto's men into breaking their line in pursuit, but the German line maintained formation and routed the Hungarians from the field, killing approximately a third of the Hungarian army in the process. On the field of battle, the German lords raised Otto on their shields in the Germanic manner and proclaimed him Emperor.
Though Otto’s son-in-law Conrad was killed during the battle and Otto’s brother Henry was mortally wounded, Otto’s action at Lechfeld marked a turning point in German-Hungarian relations. While the battle was not a crushing defeat for the Hungarians, as Otto was not able to chase the fleeing army into Hungarian lands, the defeat effectively ended almost 100 years of Hungarian invasions into Western Europe.
While Otto was fighting the Hungarians, with his main army deployed in Southern Germany, the Obotrite Slavs in the north were in a state of insurrection. Count Wichmann the Younger, still Otto's opponent over the king's refusal to grant Wichmann the title of Margrave in 936, marauded through the lands of the Obotrites in the Billung March, causing the followers of Slavic Prince Nako to revolt. The Obotrites invaded Saxony in fall 955, killing the men of arms-bearing age and carrying off the women and children into slavery. According to Widukind of Corvey, in the aftermath of the Battle of Lechfeld, Otto rushed to the north and pressed hard into Slav territory. Otto razed the Slav population centres and soon had encircled them: he offered to spare his enemies if they would surrender. A Slav embassy offered to pay annual tribute in return for being allowed self-government under German overlordship instead of direct German rule. Otto refused, and the two sides met on October 16 at the Battle of Recknitz. Otto's forces gained a decisive victory: of the 9000 Slavic soldiers, 4,500 were killed and 2,000 wounded. After the battle, the Slavic commander's head was raised on a pole and hundreds of captured Slavs were executed before sundown.
Celebrations for Otto’s victory over the pagan Hungarians and Slavs were held in churches across the kingdom, with bishops attributing the victory to divine intervention and as proof of Otto’s divine right to rule. The battles of Lechfeld and Recknitz mark a turning point in Otto’s reign. The victories over Hungarians and Slavs sealed his hold on power over Germany, with the duchies firmly under royal authority. From 955 on, Otto would not experience another rebellion against his rule and the King was able to further consolidate his position.
Liudolf's rebellion and the Hungarian invasions came at a heavy personal price for Otto. His son-in-law, Conrad, the former Duke of Lorraine, was killed in the Battle of Lechfeld and his brother Henry I, Duke of Bavaria was mortally wounded, dying a few months later on November 1. With Henry’s death, Otto appointed his four-year old nephew Henry II, to succeed his father as duke, with his mother Judith of Bavaria as his regent. Otto appointed Liudolf in 956 as the commander of an expedition against King Berengar II of Italy, but he soon died of fever on September 6, 957. Otto buried him at St. Alban’s Abbey in Mainz. The deaths of Henry, Liudolf, and Conrad took from Otto the three most prominent of his royal family, including his heir apparent. Additionally, his first two sons from his marriage to Adelaide of Italy, Henry (born 952), and Bruno (born 953) had died by 957. This left Otto’s third son by Adelaide, the two-year old Otto II, as the kingdom’s crown prince.
Reign as Emperor
Second Italian Expedition and Imperial Coronation
Liudolf’s death in fall 957 deprived Otto of both the kingdom’s crown prince as well as the commander of his expedition against King Berengar II of Italy. Beginning with the unfavorable peace treaty of 952 in which he became Otto’s vassal, Berengar II had always been a rebellious subordinate. With the death of Liudolf and Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, and with Otto campaigning in northern Germany, in 958 Berengar II attacked the March of Verona, which Otto had stripped from his control under the 952 treaty, and laid siege to Count Adalbert Atto of Canossa there. Berengar II’s forces also attacked the Papal States and the city of Rome under Pope John XII. By Christmas 960, with Italy in political turmoil, the Pope sent word to Otto seeking his aid against Berengar II. Several refugees across to the Alps into Germany, including Walpert, the Archbishop of Milan, and Ubald, the Bishop of Como, also requested Otto’s protection. With the call for aid from the Pope, Otto demanded the Pope crown him Emperor in return for his intervention. The Pope agreed and Otto prepared his army.
In preparations for his second Italian campaign and his imperial coronation, Otto planned for the kingdom’s future. In the Imperial Diet at Worms in May 961, Otto named his seven-year old son Otto II as his heir apparent and co-ruler and had him crowned at Aachen Cathedral on May 26, 961.[28] Otto was anointed by the Archbishops Bruno I of Cologne, William of Mainz, and Henry I of Trier. The king appointed his brother Bruno and illegitimate son William as Otto II’s co-regents in Germany.
Otto’s army, accompanied by Archbishop Henry, descended into Italy in August 961 through the Brenner Pass at Trento in northern Italy. Otto then marched on Pavia, the old Lombard capital of Italy, where he celebrated Christmas. At Pavia, Otto officially deposed Berengar II as king and assumed the title for himself. Berengar II’s army retreated to their strongholds to avoid battle with Otto, allowing Otto to advance unopposed to the Pope in Rome.
Otto reached Rome on January 31, 962. Three days later, Otto was crowned at Old St. Peter's Basilica by Pope John XII as Holy Roman Emperor. The Pope also anointed Otto’s wife Adelaide of Italy, who had accompanied Otto on his Italian campaign, as Empress. With Otto’s coronation as Emperor, the Kingdom of Germany and the Kingdom of Italy were unified into the Holy Roman Empire.
Papal politics
On February 12, 962, Emperor Otto and Pope John XII called a synod in Rome to cement their relationship. At the synod, Pope John XII approved Otto’s long desired Archdiocese of Magdeburg. The Emperor had planned for the establishment of the archdiocese to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Lechfeld over the Hungarians and to further convert the Slavs to Christianity. To ensure the success of the archdiocese, the Pope named St. Maurice as the archdiocese’s patron saint and called upon the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne to support the new archdiocese.
The next day Otto and John XII ratified the Diploma Ottonianum, confirming John XII as the spiritual head of the Church and Otto as its secular protector. In the Diploma, Otto confirmed the earlier Donation of Pepin of 754 between the King of the Franks Pepin the Short and Pope Stephen II. Otto recognized the Pope’s secular control over the Papal States, and expanded his domain to include Rome, the Exarchate of Ravenna, the Duchy of Spoleto and the Duchy of Benevento. Though the Pope had control over these territories, Otto was recognized as the overlord of all Italy. The Diploma granted the clergy and people of Rome the exclusive right to elect the pontiff. The Pope-elect had to issue an oath of allegiance to the Emperor before his confirmation as Pope, effectively granting the Emperor a veto over any papal candidate.
With the Diploma signed, the new Emperor marched against Berengar II to reconquer Italy. Being sieged at San Leo, Berengar II surrendered in 963. Upon the successful completion of Otto’s campaign, John XII began to fear the Emperor's rising power in Italy and started negotiations with Berengar II’s son Adalbert of Italy to depose him. The Pope also sent envoys to the Hungarians and the Byzantine Empire to join him and Adalbert in an alliance against the Emperor. Otto discovered the Pope’s plot and, after defeating and imprisoning Berengar II, marched on Rome. John XII fled from Rome, and Otto, upon his arrival in Rome, summoned a council and deposed John XII as Pope, appointing Leo VIII as his successor.
Otto returned to Germany by the end of 963, confident his rule in Italy and at Rome was secure. The Roman populace, however, considered Leo VIII, a layman with no former ecclesiastical training, unacceptable as Pope. In February 964, at the provoking of John XII, the Roman people forced Leo VIII to flee the city. In his absence, Leo VIII was deposed and John XII was restored to the chair of St. Peter. On the sudden death of John XII in May 964, the Romans elected Pope Benedict V as his successor. Upon hearing of the Romans’ actions, Otto mobilized his army and returned to Italy. After marching on Rome and laying siege to the city in June 964, Otto compelled the Romans to accept his appointee Leo VIII as Pope and exiled Benedict V. With his actions in Rome, Otto effectively subjugated the entire Catholic Church to his will.
Third Italian Expedition
Italy around 1000, shortly after Otto's reign. Otto's expansion campaigns brought northern and central Italy into the Holy Roman Empire.
Believing affairs settled in Italy, Otto returned to Saxony in fall 965. Months before the Emperor’s return, Otto’s long serving lieutenant on the eastern front, Margrave Gero, had died on May 20. At the time of his death, Gero commanded a vast march stretching from the Billung March in the north to the Duchy of Bohemia in the south. Though not popular with the nobles of the Empire, Gero had long been one of Otto’s most trusted lieutenants since the very beginning of his reign in 936. Otto was even the godfather of Gero’s children. After his death, the huge territory Gero had conquered from the Slavs was divided by the Emperor into five different marches, each ruled by a margrave: the Northern March under Dietrich of Haldensleben, the Eastern March under Odo I, the March of Meissen under Wigbert, the March of Merseburg under Günther, and the March of Zeitz under Wigger I.
The peace in Italy would not last long. Adalbert of Italy, son of the deposed King Berengar II of Italy, rebelled against Otto’s rule over Italy. Otto dispatched his nephew-in-law Burchard III, Duke of Swabia and one of Otto’s closest advisors, to Italy in 966 to crush the rebellion. Burchard III met Adalbert at the Battle of the Po on June 25 that year, defeating the rebel and restoring Italy to Ottonian control. Pope Leo VIII died on March 1, 965, leaving the chair of St. Peter vacant. The Church elected on October 1, with Otto’s approval, John XIII as new Pope.[31] John XIII’s behavior and foreign backing made him soon disliked among the Roman people, after ten weeks of reign he was taken into custody by the Romans and imprisoned in Campania. The desperate Pope sent word to Otto begging for help; the Emperor received John XIII’s message and prepared his army for a third expedition into Italy.
In August, 966, at Worms, Otto announced his arrangements for the government of Germany in his absence. Otto’s illegitimate son Archbishop William of Mainz would serve as Otto’s regent over all of Germany while Otto’s trusted lieutenant, the Margrave Hermann Billung, would be his personal administrator over the Duchy of Saxony. Otto then marched with his army to Chur in the Alps, his wife Empress Adelaide and the eleven-year old crown prince, Otto II, accompanied him.
Reign from Rome
Upon arriving in Italy, the Emperor restored John XIII to his papal throne on November 16, 966, without opposition. Otto then captured the twelve leaders of the militia, which had deposed and imprisoned the Pope, and had them tortured and crucified. Taking up permanent residence at Rome, the Emperor travelled, accompanied by the Pope, to Ravenna to celebrate Easter in 967. The first few months of the year 968 brought the deaths of Otto’s illegitimate son William, the Archbishop of Mainz and regent of Germany, as well as Otto’s mother, the Dowager Queen Matilda of Ringelheim.
With Otto’s new permanent capital in Rome, the Emperor continued to expand his realm to the south. Since February 967, the Duke of Benevento, the Lombard Pandolf Ironhead, had accepted Otto as his overlord. This decision caused conflict with the Byzantine Empire, which had claimed sovereignty over Benevento. The eastern Empire also objected to Otto’s u
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912 - 973 (60 years)
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